Ethics Workbook I: World History Chapter 9. The Middle Ages

Ethics Workbook I: World History Chapter 9

The Middle Ages

All of the societies we have studied so far have held individual people responsible for their actions.  In fact, we could say that ethics is about individual decision making.  But, we have also seen big variations in how people look at what's right or wrong. Next we're going to study a way of looking at right and wrong which stresses what's good for the group that the individual is part of.  This idea holds that what's best for the group is most important, and, it ends up being what's best for each individual as well.

Before we get started, think about this issue.  Should people try to do what's best for the group they belong to even if it might  not be, at least in the short run, what seems best for  them as individuals?

Feudalism

After the fall of Rome, the rule of law disappeared and Europe became a dangerous and lawless place.  People naturally banded together and formed groups for their own protection. The land was divided into many small territories, which were defended by castles. Nobles and knights ruled, while peasants and serfs farmed the land.  This so-called feudal system lasted for over a thousand years.

Feudalism’s ideas of right and wrong were based on what would best hold together a strong group.  We call this idea  communalism.  A commune is a group of people living together and sharing what they have.

In feudal society people freely agreed to be ruled by other people and to do what they were told in return for protection.  To seal these personal agreements, it was common to swear an oath of allegiance.  The greatest crime that you could commit was to go back on your word and not stand by your oath.  This was called a felony.  The word felony is still used today to describe the most serious crimes.

Let's look at one of these feudal oaths.

I swear before God that I will be your true and faithful servant and be at your command.  I will love what you love, and hate what you hate.  I will not think or do anything of which you disapprove.  In return you will stand by me, and protect me in all the ways we agreed to at the time I submitted myself to your authority.

Composite of several typical feudal oaths.

An oath is like a promise to do something.  How important is it to keep your promises? Should promises be kept no matter what?

Thomas Aquinas

During this feudal era, the  Catholic Church was very strong and most of the thinkers and writers were church people.  One great philosopher who had a lot to say about right and wrong at that time was a Catholic priest named Thomas Aquinas.  We're going to read some of his words and talk about them because they show the philosophy behind communalism.

Here is how Aquinas put it:

The parts of things exist for the sake of the whole.  If a person had an infected finger, and it was threatening to spread and kill the person, then it would be right and good to cut it off.  By the same reasoning, the person who is dangerous and infectious to the community can be rightfully killed to protect that community.

Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica II-II, 64 simplified

You can easily see how strong this idea of protecting the group was.  Think about the groups you belong to.  How important are these groups to you? Write a short statement about groups in your life and prepare for a discussion.

One question that puzzled people who believed in communalism was whether a person should make a profit by selling something for more than it was worth. 

Here is what Aquinas said:

It is wrong  to sell a thing for more than its just price because it is deceiving and injuring your neighbor. 

Buying and selling is intended for the common advantage of both parties.  Therefore, there must be equality between them.

Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica II-II,77 simplified

This is different isn’t it?  Let's look closer at what Aquinas said.  First of all he uses the term just price.  This term means the same thing as fair price.  But what does that mean?

Well, for people at that time, it meant that if you were selling something to make a living, you could set your price only as high as was necessary to pay your living expenses.  In other words, you could expect to live comfortably at the level you were already at.  You could not get rich by making big profits.  For example, shoemakers had a certain lifestyle, as did carpenters and farmers, and so did everyone else.  You could sell your goods only at a price that kept you at that level.  The just price would change with people and places, but it was always intended to keep people from moving up, or down, the social ladder.

To sell anything for more than it is worth, or to buy anything for less than it is worth, is wrong and unlawful.

Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica II-II,77

Compare this with the way trade is carried on today.

Thomas Aquinas had a lot to say about right and wrong. Let's see what he says about hypocrisy.  Remember that hypocrites pretend to be something they’re not.

The seriousness of the wrong will depend on what end the hypocrite has in view.  If the hypocrite intends to gain from it at someone else's expense, it is very serious, but if the hypocrite just enjoys pretending, then it's of lesser importance.

Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica II-II,111,4

Here again we see that intent played a big role in how actions were judged.  Let’s think about this question again, maybe you’ve changed your opinion. Do you think that the reason that motivated a person to do something can determine if that action was right or wrong? 

©Anthony Tiatorio 1999